have a longer message than the last one (more characters) (inspired by varying numbers)
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so like this: ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| (this is a longer post so this is valid)
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yesterday June 19, 2024
have a longer message than the last one (more characters) (inspired by varying numbers)
if the last message is 16,384 characters long, you can ignore this rule
galaxyuser63274
galaxyuser63274countest
yesterday June 19, 2024
so like this: ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| (this is a longer post so this is valid)
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Grass is a type of plant with narrow leaves growing from the base. Their appearance as a common plant was in the mid-Cretaceous period. There are 12,000 species now.
A common kind of grass is used to cover the ground in places such as lawns and parks. Grass is usually the color green. That is because they are wind-pollinated rather than insect-pollinated, so they do not have to attract insects. Green is the best colour for photosynthesis.
Grasslands such as savannah and prairie are where grasses are dominant. They cover 40.5% of the land area of the Earth, but not Greenland and Antarctica.
Grasses are monocotyledon herbaceous plants. They include the "grass" of the family Poaceae, which are called grass by ordinary people. This family is also called the Gramineae, and includes some of the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). These three families are not very closely related, though all of them belong to clades in the order Poales. They are similar adaptations to a similar life-style.
With about 780 genera and about 12,000 species, the Poaceae is the fifth-largest plant family. Only the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae have more species.
The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for livestock, thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, basket weaving and many others.
Many grasses are short, but some grasses can grow tall, such as bamboo. Plants from the grass family can grow in many places and make grasslands, including areas which are very dry or cold. There are several other plants that look similar to grass and are referred to as such, but are not members of the grass family. These plants include rushes, reeds, papyrus and water chestnut. Seagrass is a monocot in the order Alismatales.
Grasses are an important food for many animals, such as deer, buffalo, cattle, mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars and many other grazers. Unlike other plants, grasses grow from the bottom, so when animals eat grass they usually do not destroy the part that grows.[7] This is part of the reason why the plants are so successful.
Without grass, more soil might wash away into rivers (erosion).
Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous. Fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing grass phytoliths (silica stones inside grass leaves).[8] Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type. Grass is a valuable source of food and energy for many animals.[9]
Lawn grass is often planted on sports fields and in the area around a building. Sometimes chemicals and water is used to help lawns to grow.
People have used grasses for a long time. People eat parts of grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice and millet are cereals, common grains whose seeds are used for food and to make alcohol such as beer.
Sugar comes from sugar cane, which is also a plant in the grass family. People have grown grasses as food for farm animals for about 4,000 years. People use bamboo to build houses, fences, furniture and other things. Grass plants can also be used as fuel, to cover rooves, and to weave baskets.
description of grass from wikipedia
Kyrgyzstan,[a] officially the Kyrgyz Republic,[b][12] is a landlocked country in Central Asia, lying in the Tian Shan and Pamir mountain ranges. Bishkek is the capital and largest city of the country. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and China to the east and southeast.[13][14][15] Ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the country's 7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians.[16]
Kyrgyzstan's history spans a variety of cultures and empires. Although geographically isolated by its highly mountainous terrain, Kyrgyzstan has been at the crossroads of several great civilizations as part of the Silk Road along with other commercial routes. Inhabited by a succession of tribes and clans, Kyrgyzstan has periodically fallen under larger domination, for example the Turkic nomads, who trace their ancestry to many Turkic states. It was first established as the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate. Later, in the 13th century, Kyrgyzstan was conquered by the Mongols; it regained independence, but was later invaded by the Dzungar Khanate. After the fall of Dzhungars, Kyrgyz and Kipchaks were an integral part of Kokand Khanate. In 1876, Kyrgyzstan became part of the Russian Empire, and in 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was formed to become a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. Following Mikhail Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidate Askar Akayev was elected president. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from the USSR and a democratic government was established. Kyrgyzstan attained sovereignty as a nation state after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Tian Shan Mountains in East Kyrgyzstan
After independence, Kyrgyzstan was officially a unitary presidential republic; after the Tulip Revolution it became a unitary parliamentary republic, although it gradually developed an executive president and was governed as a semi-presidential republic before reverting to a presidential system in 2021. Throughout its existence, the country has continued to endure ethnic conflicts,[17][18] revolts,[19] economic troubles,[20][21] transitional governments[22] and political conflict.[23]
Kyrgyzstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organisation of Turkic States, the Türksoy community and the United Nations. It is a developing country ranked 118th in the Human Development Index, and is the second poorest country in Central Asia after neighbouring Tajikistan. The country's transitional economy is heavily dependent on deposits of gold, coal and uranium.
Etymology
Statue of Manas in Bishkek
Kyrgyz is derived from the Turkic word for "We are forty", believed to refer to the forty clans of Manas, a legendary hero who united forty regional clans. The Persian suffix -stan means "place of".
The 40-ray sun on the flag of Kyrgyzstan is a reference to those same forty tribes and the graphical element in the sun's center depicts the wooden crown, called tunduk, of a yurt—a portable dwelling traditionally used by nomads in the steppes of Central Asia.
The country's official name is Kyrgyz Republic, used in international arenas and foreign relations.[24][25] In the English-speaking world, the spelling Kyrgyzstan is commonly used, while its former name Kirghizia[c] is rarely used.[26]
Early history
The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 AD.[27] From the tenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years.
There is a storytelling tradition of the Epic of Manas, which involves a warrior who unified all of the scattered tribes into a single nation in the 9th century. The trilogy, an element of the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, expresses the memory of the nomadic peoples.[citation needed]
In the 12th century, the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. The Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207.
Silk road caravansarai utilized during the Islamic Golden Age
Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a land route for traders, merchants, and other travelers from the Far East to Europe. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the mid-18th century by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China, and in the early 19th century by the Uzbek Khanate of Kokand.[28] In 1842, the Kyrgyz tribes broke away from Kokand and united into the Kara-Kyrgyz Khanate [ky], led by Ormon Khan. Following Ormon's death in 1854, the khanate disintegrated.[29]
Russian conquest
In the late nineteenth century, the eastern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan, mainly the Issyk-Kul Region, was ceded to the Russian Empire by Qing China through the Treaty of Tarbagatai.[30] The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirghizia", was formally incorporated into the Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to relocate to the Pamir Mountains and Afghanistan.
In addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China.[31] Since many ethnic groups in the region were, and still are, split between neighboring states at a time when borders were more porous and less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better; this might mean better rains for pasture or better government during oppression.
Soviet Kyrgyzstan (1919–1991)
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1919, and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SFSR). The phrase Kara-Kirghiz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kirghiz. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a constituent Union Republic of the Soviet Union.
After the Russian Civil War, the period of the New Economic Policy (NEP), began, which lasted roughly to 1928.[32] The Bolsheviks made an effort to establish a standardized tax system, with higher taxes for nomads to discourage the wandering livelihood and they divided the Central Asia region into five nation-states.[32][33][34] Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life, literacy was greatly improved. Economic and social development also was notable.[35] Under Stalin a great focus was put on Kyrgyz national identity. The Soviet state was fighting tribalism: its social organization based on patrilineal kinship contradicted the concept of the modern nation state.[33][35] In a region that did not previously know national institutions or consciousness, the process of nation-building was, from the indigenous perspective, a difficult and ambivalent one.[34]
By the end of the 1920s, the Soviet Union developed a series of five-year plans, centered around industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture, including the creation of huge "kolkhoz" collective farming systems, needed to feed the new workers in the industries.[36] Because of the plan's reliance on rapidity, major economic and cultural changes had to occur, which led to conflicts. In Kyrgyzstan, Russian settlers acquired the best pasture land, creating much hardship for most of its original inhabitants, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Turkmen nomads, who were also forced to settle down on soil that hadn't enough agricultural potential.[34][37] The changes caused unrest, and between 1928 and 1932, nomads and peasants made it clear through methods like passive resistance that they did not agree with these policies, in the Kirgiziya area also guerrilla opposition occurred.[32][34][37] The region suffered relatively more deaths from collectivization than any other.[32]
The early years of glasnost, in the late 1980s, had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the Republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute housing crisis were permitted to function.
According to the last Soviet census in 1989, ethnic Kyrgyz made up only 22% of the residents of the northern city of Frunze (now Bishkek), while more than 60% were Russians, Ukrainians, and people from other Slavic nations. Nearly 10% of the capital's population were Jewish (a rather unique fact, for almost any place in the Soviet Union, except the Jewish Autonomous Oblast).
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in the Osh Region (southern Kyrgyzstan), where Uzbeks form a minority of the population.[38] The tensions between Kyrgyzs and Uzbeks in Osis led to 186 deaths.[39] Attempts to appropriate Uzbek collective farms for housing development triggered the Osh Riots. A state of emergency and curfew were introduced[40] and Askar Akayev, the youngest of five sons born into a family of collective farm workers (in northern Kyrgyzstan), was elected president in October of that same year. By then, the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a significant political force with support in Parliament. On 15 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new cabinet composed mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians. In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name of Bishkek.[41]
Despite these political moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against secession from the Soviet Union. In a referendum on the preservation of the Soviet Union in March 1991, 88.7%[citation needed] of the voters approved the proposal to retain the Soviet Union as a "renewed federation". Nevertheless, secessionist forces pushed Kyrgyzstan's independence through in August of that same year.
On 19 August 1991, when the State Emergency Committee assumed power in Moscow, there was an attempt to depose Akayev in Kyrgyzstan. After the coup collapsed the following week, Akayev and Vice President German Kuznetsov announced their resignations from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), and the entire bureau and secretariat resigned. This was followed by the Supreme Soviet vote declaring independence from the Soviet Union on 31 August 1991 as the Republic of Kyrgyzstan.[42]
According to a 2013 Gallup poll, 62% of Kyrgyz people say that the collapse of the Soviet Union harmed their country, while only 16% said that the collapse benefitted it.[43]
Independence
In October 1991, Akayev ran unopposed and was elected president of the new independent Republic by direct ballot, receiving 95 percent of the votes cast. Together with the representatives of seven other Republics that same month, he signed the Treaty of the Economic Community. The new leaders of three out of four Soviet Union's founding republics, Russia, Belarus and Ukraine, on 8 December 1991 signed the Belavezha Accords, denouncing the Union Treaty of 1922, declaring that the Union would cease to exist and proclaimed the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in its place.[44]
On 21 December 1991, Kyrgyzstan agreed with the other four Central Asian Republics, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan to the Alma-Ata Protocols, formally entering the Commonwealth with Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Moldova and Ukraine. Finally, Kyrgyzstan gained full independence on 25 December 1991. The following day, on 26 December 1991, the Soviet Union ceased to exist. In 1992, Kyrgyzstan joined the United Nations and the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE). On 5 May 1993, the official name changed from the Republic of Kyrgyzstan to the Kyrgyz Republic following the adoption of a new constitution.[45]
In 2005, an uprising known as the "Tulip Revolution", took place after the parliamentary elections in March 2005, forced President Askar Akayev's resignation on 4 April 2005. Opposition leaders formed a coalition, and a new government was formed under President Kurmanbek Bakiyev and Prime Minister Felix Kulov. The nation's capital was looted during the protests.
Political stability appeared to be elusive, however, as various groups and factions allegedly linked to organized crime jockeyed for power. Three of the 75 members of Parliament elected in March 2005 were assassinated, and another member was assassinated on 10 May 2006 shortly after winning his murdered brother's seat in a by-election. All four are reputed to have been directly involved in major illegal business ventures.[
took this from wikepedia
The main idea behind Pokémon was conceived by Satoshi Tajiri. Tajiri was born on August 28, 1965,[28] and grew up in Machida, a suburb of Tokyo.[29] As a child, he enjoyed discovering and catching insects and other small creatures in the various ponds and fields that surrounded his town.[30][31] During Japan's economic miracle, many cities, including Machida, were significantly expanded. As a consequence, Machida's nature was largely destroyed. In his second year of junior high school,[32][33] an arcade hall opened in Tajiri's neighborhood, introducing him to video games. While studying electrical engineering at Tokyo College of Technology [ja], Tajiri began publishing a doujinshi magazine titled Game Freak. The title was inspired by the 1932 film Freaks, which Tajiri was fascinated with at the time.[34] He self-published the first issue of the magazine in March 1983, at the age of 17.[35][36] At the time, magazines specializing in video games did not yet exist in Japan, allowing Game Freak to fill a gap in the market.[37][38] Sometime later, Tajiri was contacted by aspiring manga artist Ken Sugimori, who became Game Freak's illustrator.[39] Game Freak folded in the late 1980s,[35] by which point Tajiri had become a respected game journalist in Japan's fledgling video game industry.[40]
Tajiri's knowledge of video games brought him into contact with Tsunekazu Ishihara. Ishihara had studied Arts and Science at Tsukuba University, and was trained in CGI. After working in advertising for two years, Ishihara joined a company named Sedic in 1983, which created video graphics and software,[41] including one video game, Otocky (1987).[42][43] As video games grew in popularity, Sedic also produced a number of game-related television shows for Fuji Television's late-night slot.[41] In his job as a TV producer, Ishihara befriended Tajiri, as well as Shigesato Itoi, who would later become CEO of Ape, Inc.[44][45] Ishihara was also the general director of the world's first gaming encyclopedia: TV Games: Encyclopedia of Video Games (テレビゲーム―電視遊戯大全, Terebigēmu ― Denshi Yūgi Taizen).[46][47] Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) wrote that, at the time, Ishihara was probably the most well-connected man in the industry,[48] with a knowledge of games "beyond comparison".[49] Ishihara was also interested in playing cards,[50][51] and contributed to the development of at least three simple card games designed by Itoi and published by Ape.[c]
In 1986, Tajiri, Sugimori, and a few other enthusiasts started an informal development team called Game Freak, named after the magazine it grew out of. Over the next few years, they independently developed the puzzle game Quinty, working on it alongside school or their regular jobs.[58] However, no one within the group knew how to make the game's music. After consulting all his contacts, Tajiri got in touch with Junichi Masuda, who became the group's composer.[59] Quinty was finished in 1989, and published by Namco.[60] Tajiri officially incorporated Game Freak Co., Ltd. on April 26, 1989.[61]
1989–1995: Development of Red & Green
Further information: Pokémon Red and Blue § Development
Two original Game Boys connected with a Game Link Cable
Tajiri started to think of what was to become Pokemon while completing Quinty, and before he officially founded Game Freak. Around this time, Nintendo announced the upcoming release of the Game Boy, a handheld console that would revolutionize the gaming industry. Tajiri learned that the device would have a link port, and with the corresponding Game Link Cable, two Game Boys could be linked together.[62] Sometime later, Tajiri remembered an incident while playing Dragon Quest II (1987), a role-playing game (RPG) for the Famicom (NES). The game features randomly appearing items of varying rarity, including an extremely rare item called Mysterious Hat.[d] Tajiri did not encounter any, while Ken Sugimori, who was also playing the game, encountered two. Upon recalling this experience, Tajiri realized that the cable now made it possible to transfer things from one cartridge to another.[II] He noted that, until then, the Game Link Cable was only used for competing, but not for something else.[67] Combining this inspiration with his memories of catching insects and other small species, Tajiri's idea would eventually evolve into a virtual recreation of his boyhood experiences,[68] and an attempt to "regain the world that he had lost".[69] He would later state that the game represents "the story of a boy's summer day".[70]
Gashapon capsules have been cited as an inspiration for Pokemon.
Tajiri and the Game Freak staff began pondering over a game centered on capturing creatures of differing rarity. Since the Game Boy is a portable device, these creatures could then be exchanged with other players in real life using the link cable. Once the player has caught a creature in-game, it was to be stored in miniaturized form in a special capsule. This facet of the game was inspired by Ultraseven, a tokusatsu show that Tajiri had enjoyed as a child.[13] The series' titular character owns a number of capsules containing miniaturized kaiju (monsters), which come out and return to their original sizes when the capsule is thrown into mid-air. Kaiju media in general were an important influence on Pokemon, as many Game Freak staff members had grown up with them.[64][71] Other influences that have been cited by Tajiri include: gashapon, capsules with toy figures in them that can be drawn from vending machines;[72][73] collectible cards, such as baseball cards, Ultraman cards and menko;[III] The Final Fantasy Legend (1989), the first RPG for the Game Boy;[78] and petting in Japan, with Tajiri noting that having Pokemon is similar to having pets.[79] Tajiri initially named his project Capsule Monsters, which GF's staff commonly shortened to Capumon.[80] However, it later turned out that the term Capsule Monsters could not be trademarked, and it was subsequently decided to call the game Pocket Monsters, which became Pokemon. According to Tomisawa (2000), the phrase "Capsule Monsters" was already registered.[80] According to Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000), the word "capsule" could not be used in the trademark.[81] Tomisawa (2000) states that the Game Freak staff then came up with several alternatives, before someone within the team suggested "Pocket Monsters".[80]
In March 1989, Nintendo co-founded Ape, Inc. with Itoi. Ape's principal work was Mother (1989), a role-playing game written by Itoi, but it was also founded with the intent to give outside talent a chance to pitch new, innovative games.[45][50] At the time, Ape was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo.[82] Ishihara, a friend of both Itoi and Tajiri, was involved with Ape's management (and would become its vice-president in 1991).[45][48] Tajiri's relationship with Ishihara prompted Tajiri to present his idea for Pokemon at Ape's office.[83][84] Present during Tajiri's pitch was Takashi Kawaguchi, who worked at Nintendo's General Affairs Department and was also a manager at Ape.[50][85] Kawaguchi brought the idea to Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi, who reportedly said: "This is it. This is the idea I've been waiting for."[86] By pure coincidence, Ishihara had come up with an idea for a game similar to that of Tajiri, and around the same time was discussing it with Ape. This game, Toto, involved "using the Game Boy as an insect cage". Ishihara emphasized, however, that the idea of trading creatures with the link cable was Tajiri's. GF and Ape agreed to merge their projects together.[87] According to Tajiri, the two teams initially collaborated on the game, but the work proved difficult, one of the reasons being that Ape was busy developing EarthBound.[88][89] Tajiri eventually figured that "rather than working with Ape, we had to do something on our own, or the project would never get finished".[88] Ape, Inc. is not credited on the final product.
The development contract was signed at the beginning of 1990, with a planned delivery of the game in October.[90] Tajiri directed the project, working under Ishihara.[91] Ishihara was the producer – he managed the budget, staff, and work schedule, monitored the game's overall progress, and served as a liaison between Game Freak and Nintendo.[87][92] Ishihara also contributed ideas to the development,[51] and helped with debugging.[93][94] Sugimori was in charge of the graphics and character design.[95] Masuda created all music and sound effects, and did part of the programming.[96] The budget that Nintendo granted to Game Freak was low.[90] Thus, Pocket Monsters was initially planned as a small, compact game, based primarily around Tajiri's core idea of exchanging.[78][97] However, as development progressed, GF's ideas and ambitions for Pokemon grew.[78] They soon realized that the game they were beginning to envision would not be easy to make. Sugimori admitted that, at the time, no one at GF had much knowledge of RPGs. "We thought we could handle it, but as we began working, we realized it was going to be tough", he acknowledged.[98] Pokemon was suspended indefinitely, and GF turned their focus on other titles (see Game Freak § Games).
After the game's initial development phase in 1990 and '91,[99] the staff "tinkered with it from time to time", as Sugimori put it.[100] For instance, by October 1992, a large number of Pokemon had been designed, and a poll was held that month among all staff members to gauge the popularity of the different species. Several more such votes followed to determine collectively which Pokemon should be included.[101] Still, development had mostly come to a halt until the summer of 1994, after the release of the platform game Pulseman, upon which Tajiri decided it was time to make a serious effort towards finishing Pokemon.[102] By this point, Game Freak's experience had grown considerably. Over the years, a number of new staff members had been added to the company. One of them was Atsuko Nishida, a graphic artist who created Pikachu, among others.[103][104][105] Ishihara used his knowledge of card games to add more depth to the battle system, and among other things suggested Pokemon types. Ishihara also came up with the idea of the Pokedex, a portable encyclopedic device which players can use to keep track of the Pokemon they caught.[51] Throughout the years, Tajiri had several conversations with Shigeru Miyamoto,[106] Nintendo's top game designer who Tajiri described as a mentor figure.[13] Although, in a 2018 retrospect, Miyamoto downplayed his role in advising Tajiri, and stated that his contributions to Pokemon were in fact limited.[107] Miyamoto did, however, suggest the use of different colored cartridges for the game, in response to Tajiri's and Ishihara's musings about making each playthrough slightly different, as to 'individualize' the player's experience.[108] According to Tajiri, "five or seven colors" were considered,[109] but they eventually settled on two: a Red version and a Green version. Both games were identical, but each had Pokemon not found in the other, encouraging players to socialize and trade to complete their collection.[108]
Ishihara aspired to create video games of his own.[110] As Pocket Monsters Red and Green were nearing completion, Ishihara founded Creatures, Inc. on November 8, 1995. Upon founding, the company was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo.[111] Co-ownership of the Pokemon property, which Ishihara helped create, was subsequently assigned to Creatures. This resulted in Pokemon having three legal owners: Game Freak, the main developer; Creatures, representing producer Ishihara; and Nintendo, the publisher. Anne Allison (2006) wrote that Nintendo also bought Pokemon after it was finished.[112] Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) noted that the ownership structure of Pokemon is uncommon.[113] They wrote that "Pokemon is probably the only property in the world today for which the original rights are not concentrated in a single company", like The Walt Disney Company does with their IPs.[113] Tajiri and Ishihara did consider merging Game Freak and Creatures at one point. However, Tajiri decided against it because he feared it would erase what he had built up since he was a teenager. "I felt threatened by the idea of changing how Game Freak was operating, and starting back over with Mr. Ishihara", he said. "It was an identity problem. If Game Freak ceased to exist, then so would I". Tajiri noted that, since Game Freak and Creatures both focus on Pokemon, it sometimes felt more like different departments than different companies.[83]
Pocket Monsters Red and Green were finally finished in December 1995.[114] A release date of December 21, 1995 was announced,[115] but missed. After sufficient cartridges, manuals and packages had been manufactured, the pair of games ended up being published on February 27, 1996. However, the property was copyrighted in 1995, and "© 1995" is shown on the title screens[116] and cartridges.[117] This year is since used on the copyright notice[1] seen on many Pokemon products, even though no actual Pokemon product was released in 1995.[118]
1996–1998: Rise in Japan
Release of Red & Green
Nintendo had no high expectations of Pocket Monsters Red and Green, and media largely ignored the game(s).[119] By 1996, the seven-year-old Game Boy console was considered yesterday's news and near the end of its lifecycle.[120][121][122] On the other hand, new Game Boys continued to be manufactured and sold.[123] The console was widespread and, due to its age, affordable to children.[120][124] Also, the Game Boy had experienced a small revival in Japan in 1995 due to the success of Mario's Picross. Coincidentally, this game was directed by Ishihara, and co-developed by Ape. The popularity of Mario's Picross inspired Nintendo to develop the Game Boy Pocket,[125] a slimmer and improved version of the Game Boy, released in Japan on July 21, 1996.[126] Because of the timing, some were under the impression that the Game Boy Pocket was made to promote Pocket Monsters, but this was in fact a coincidence that would end up benefiting both.[127]
CoroCoro manga, Mew lottery
Two media channels that would play important roles in the Pokemon franchise were the CoroCoro Comic, released monthly, and its sister magazine Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released bi-monthly. Both manga magazines are published by Shogakukan, a long-time business partner of Nintendo, and have featured manga based on Nintendo properties (e.g. Super Mario-kun, Kirby of the Stars, Donkey Kong). At the time of Pokemon's release, the main CoroCoro magazine was read by one in four elementary school students.[128] CoroCoro's deputy editor-in-chief was Masakazu Kubo [ja]. On Ishihara's suggestion,[129] Kubo commissioned the creation of a Pocket Monsters manga. Written and drawn by Kosaku Anakubo [ja], its first chapter was featured in the March/April issue of Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released on February 28, 1996, one day after the release of Red and Green.[130] Shogakukan, which frequently surveys their target groups, determined that the Pocket Monsters manga was well received.[131]
To further promote Red and Green, the May issue of CoroCoro, released on April 15, 1996, announced the "Legendary Pokemon Offer", centered around a mysterious, secret Pokemon called Mew.[132][133] Mew was a last-minute addition to Red & Green. It is unobtainable in the game(s) through usual means, and was intended to be used at a later point in some post-launch activity.[134] To participate in the promotion, CoroCoro readers had to send in a postcard, and from the entrants, 20 were selected at random. The winners then had to send in their cartridge so that Mew could be uploaded onto it. The lottery was a success and increased word-of-mouth.[120][134] By September, sales of Red and Green had surpassed 1 million units.[135]
Pokemon Blue
After the release of Pokemon Red and Green, Game Freak continued to grow, and a number of new employees were hired. For training purposes, they were ordered to study and make bug fixes to the source code of Red & Green, and to create new sprites for it.[136] The upgraded version was dubbed Pokemon Blue.
also stole this from wikipedia lolol
The main idea behind Pokémon was conceived by Satoshi Tajiri. Tajiri was born on August 28, 1965,[28] and grew up in Machida, a suburb of Tokyo.[29] As a child, he enjoyed discovering and catching insects and other small creatures in the various ponds and fields that surrounded his town.[30][31] During Japan's economic miracle, many cities, including Machida, were significantly expanded. As a consequence, Machida's nature was largely destroyed. In his second year of junior high school,[32][33] an arcade hall opened in Tajiri's neighborhood, introducing him to video games. While studying electrical engineering at Tokyo College of Technology [ja], Tajiri began publishing a doujinshi magazine titled Game Freak. The title was inspired by the 1932 film Freaks, which Tajiri was fascinated with at the time.[34] He self-published the first issue of the magazine in March 1983, at the age of 17.[35][36] At the time, magazines specializing in video games did not yet exist in Japan, allowing Game Freak to fill a gap in the market.[37][38] Sometime later, Tajiri was contacted by aspiring manga artist Ken Sugimori, who became Game Freak's illustrator.[39] Game Freak folded in the late 1980s,[35] by which point Tajiri had become a respected game journalist in Japan's fledgling video game industry.[40]
Tajiri's knowledge of video games brought him into contact with Tsunekazu Ishihara. Ishihara had studied Arts and Science at Tsukuba University, and was trained in CGI. After working in advertising for two years, Ishihara joined a company named Sedic in 1983, which created video graphics and software,[41] including one video game, Otocky (1987).[42][43] As video games grew in popularity, Sedic also produced a number of game-related television shows for Fuji Television's late-night slot.[41] In his job as a TV producer, Ishihara befriended Tajiri, as well as Shigesato Itoi, who would later become CEO of Ape, Inc.[44][45] Ishihara was also the general director of the world's first gaming encyclopedia: TV Games: Encyclopedia of Video Games (テレビゲーム―電視遊戯大全, Terebigēmu ― Denshi Yūgi Taizen).[46][47] Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) wrote that, at the time, Ishihara was probably the most well-connected man in the industry,[48] with a knowledge of games "beyond comparison".[49] Ishihara was also interested in playing cards,[50][51] and contributed to the development of at least three simple card games designed by Itoi and published by Ape.[c]
In 1986, Tajiri, Sugimori, and a few other enthusiasts started an informal development team called Game Freak, named after the magazine it grew out of. Over the next few years, they independently developed the puzzle game Quinty, working on it alongside school or their regular jobs.[58] However, no one within the group knew how to make the game's music. After consulting all his contacts, Tajiri got in touch with Junichi Masuda, who became the group's composer.[59] Quinty was finished in 1989, and published by Namco.[60] Tajiri officially incorporated Game Freak Co., Ltd. on April 26, 1989.[61]
1989–1995: Development of Red & Green
Further information: Pokémon Red and Blue § Development
Two original Game Boys connected with a Game Link Cable
Tajiri started to think of what was to become Pokemon while completing Quinty, and before he officially founded Game Freak. Around this time, Nintendo announced the upcoming release of the Game Boy, a handheld console that would revolutionize the gaming industry. Tajiri learned that the device would have a link port, and with the corresponding Game Link Cable, two Game Boys could be linked together.[62] Sometime later, Tajiri remembered an incident while playing Dragon Quest II (1987), a role-playing game (RPG) for the Famicom (NES). The game features randomly appearing items of varying rarity, including an extremely rare item called Mysterious Hat.[d] Tajiri did not encounter any, while Ken Sugimori, who was also playing the game, encountered two. Upon recalling this experience, Tajiri realized that the cable now made it possible to transfer things from one cartridge to another.[II] He noted that, until then, the Game Link Cable was only used for competing, but not for something else.[67] Combining this inspiration with his memories of catching insects and other small species, Tajiri's idea would eventually evolve into a virtual recreation of his boyhood experiences,[68] and an attempt to "regain the world that he had lost".[69] He would later state that the game represents "the story of a boy's summer day".[70]
Gashapon capsules have been cited as an inspiration for Pokemon.
Tajiri and the Game Freak staff began pondering over a game centered on capturing creatures of differing rarity. Since the Game Boy is a portable device, these creatures could then be exchanged with other players in real life using the link cable. Once the player has caught a creature in-game, it was to be stored in miniaturized form in a special capsule. This facet of the game was inspired by Ultraseven, a tokusatsu show that Tajiri had enjoyed as a child.[13] The series' titular character owns a number of capsules containing miniaturized kaiju (monsters), which come out and return to their original sizes when the capsule is thrown into mid-air. Kaiju media in general were an important influence on Pokemon, as many Game Freak staff members had grown up with them.[64][71] Other influences that have been cited by Tajiri include: gashapon, capsules with toy figures in them that can be drawn from vending machines;[72][73] collectible cards, such as baseball cards, Ultraman cards and menko;[III] The Final Fantasy Legend (1989), the first RPG for the Game Boy;[78] and petting in Japan, with Tajiri noting that having Pokemon is similar to having pets.[79] Tajiri initially named his project Capsule Monsters, which GF's staff commonly shortened to Capumon.[80] However, it later turned out that the term Capsule Monsters could not be trademarked, and it was subsequently decided to call the game Pocket Monsters, which became Pokemon. According to Tomisawa (2000), the phrase "Capsule Monsters" was already registered.[80] According to Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000), the word "capsule" could not be used in the trademark.[81] Tomisawa (2000) states that the Game Freak staff then came up with several alternatives, before someone within the team suggested "Pocket Monsters".[80]
In March 1989, Nintendo co-founded Ape, Inc. with Itoi. Ape's principal work was Mother (1989), a role-playing game written by Itoi, but it was also founded with the intent to give outside talent a chance to pitch new, innovative games.[45][50] At the time, Ape was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo.[82] Ishihara, a friend of both Itoi and Tajiri, was involved with Ape's management (and would become its vice-president in 1991).[45][48] Tajiri's relationship with Ishihara prompted Tajiri to present his idea for Pokemon at Ape's office.[83][84] Present during Tajiri's pitch was Takashi Kawaguchi, who worked at Nintendo's General Affairs Department and was also a manager at Ape.[50][85] Kawaguchi brought the idea to Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi, who reportedly said: "This is it. This is the idea I've been waiting for."[86] By pure coincidence, Ishihara had come up with an idea for a game similar to that of Tajiri, and around the same time was discussing it with Ape. This game, Toto, involved "using the Game Boy as an insect cage". Ishihara emphasized, however, that the idea of trading creatures with the link cable was Tajiri's. GF and Ape agreed to merge their projects together.[87] According to Tajiri, the two teams initially collaborated on the game, but the work proved difficult, one of the reasons being that Ape was busy developing EarthBound.[88][89] Tajiri eventually figured that "rather than working with Ape, we had to do something on our own, or the project would never get finished".[88] Ape, Inc. is not credited on the final product.
The development contract was signed at the beginning of 1990, with a planned delivery of the game in October.[90] Tajiri directed the project, working under Ishihara.[91] Ishihara was the producer – he managed the budget, staff, and work schedule, monitored the game's overall progress, and served as a liaison between Game Freak and Nintendo.[87][92] Ishihara also contributed ideas to the development,[51] and helped with debugging.[93][94] Sugimori was in charge of the graphics and character design.[95] Masuda created all music and sound effects, and did part of the programming.[96] The budget that Nintendo granted to Game Freak was low.[90] Thus, Pocket Monsters was initially planned as a small, compact game, based primarily around Tajiri's core idea of exchanging.[78][97] However, as development progressed, GF's ideas and ambitions for Pokemon grew.[78] They soon realized that the game they were beginning to envision would not be easy to make. Sugimori admitted that, at the time, no one at GF had much knowledge of RPGs. "We thought we could handle it, but as we began working, we realized it was going to be tough", he acknowledged.[98] Pokemon was suspended indefinitely, and GF turned their focus on other titles (see Game Freak § Games).
After the game's initial development phase in 1990 and '91,[99] the staff "tinkered with it from time to time", as Sugimori put it.[100] For instance, by October 1992, a large number of Pokemon had been designed, and a poll was held that month among all staff members to gauge the popularity of the different species. Several more such votes followed to determine collectively which Pokemon should be included.[101] Still, development had mostly come to a halt until the summer of 1994, after the release of the platform game Pulseman, upon which Tajiri decided it was time to make a serious effort towards finishing Pokemon.[102] By this point, Game Freak's experience had grown considerably. Over the years, a number of new staff members had been added to the company. One of them was Atsuko Nishida, a graphic artist who created Pikachu, among others.[103][104][105] Ishihara used his knowledge of card games to add more depth to the battle system, and among other things suggested Pokemon types. Ishihara also came up with the idea of the Pokedex, a portable encyclopedic device which players can use to keep track of the Pokemon they caught.[51] Throughout the years, Tajiri had several conversations with Shigeru Miyamoto,[106] Nintendo's top game designer who Tajiri described as a mentor figure.[13] Although, in a 2018 retrospect, Miyamoto downplayed his role in advising Tajiri, and stated that his contributions to Pokemon were in fact limited.[107] Miyamoto did, however, suggest the use of different colored cartridges for the game, in response to Tajiri's and Ishihara's musings about making each playthrough slightly different, as to 'individualize' the player's experience.[108] According to Tajiri, "five or seven colors" were considered,[109] but they eventually settled on two: a Red version and a Green version. Both games were identical, but each had Pokemon not found in the other, encouraging players to socialize and trade to complete their collection.[108]
Ishihara aspired to create video games of his own.[110] As Pocket Monsters Red and Green were nearing completion, Ishihara founded Creatures, Inc. on November 8, 1995. Upon founding, the company was housed in the same Kanda-Sudachō office building as Nintendo, located in Tokyo.[111] Co-ownership of the Pokemon property, which Ishihara helped create, was subsequently assigned to Creatures. This resulted in Pokemon having three legal owners: Game Freak, the main developer; Creatures, representing producer Ishihara; and Nintendo, the publisher. Anne Allison (2006) wrote that Nintendo also bought Pokemon after it was finished.[112] Hatakeyama & Kubo (2000) noted that the ownership structure of Pokemon is uncommon.[113] They wrote that "Pokemon is probably the only property in the world today for which the original rights are not concentrated in a single company", like The Walt Disney Company does with their IPs.[113] Tajiri and Ishihara did consider merging Game Freak and Creatures at one point. However, Tajiri decided against it because he feared it would erase what he had built up since he was a teenager. "I felt threatened by the idea of changing how Game Freak was operating, and starting back over with Mr. Ishihara", he said. "It was an identity problem. If Game Freak ceased to exist, then so would I". Tajiri noted that, since Game Freak and Creatures both focus on Pokemon, it sometimes felt more like different departments than different companies.[83]
Pocket Monsters Red and Green were finally finished in December 1995.[114] A release date of December 21, 1995 was announced,[115] but missed. After sufficient cartridges, manuals and packages had been manufactured, the pair of games ended up being published on February 27, 1996. However, the property was copyrighted in 1995, and "© 1995" is shown on the title screens[116] and cartridges.[117] This year is since used on the copyright notice[1] seen on many Pokemon products, even though no actual Pokemon product was released in 1995.[118]
1996–1998: Rise in Japan
Release of Red & Green
Nintendo had no high expectations of Pocket Monsters Red and Green, and media largely ignored the game(s).[119] By 1996, the seven-year-old Game Boy console was considered yesterday's news and near the end of its lifecycle.[120][121][122] On the other hand, new Game Boys continued to be manufactured and sold.[123] The console was widespread and, due to its age, affordable to children.[120][124] Also, the Game Boy had experienced a small revival in Japan in 1995 due to the success of Mario's Picross. Coincidentally, this game was directed by Ishihara, and co-developed by Ape. The popularity of Mario's Picross inspired Nintendo to develop the Game Boy Pocket,[125] a slimmer and improved version of the Game Boy, released in Japan on July 21, 1996.[126] Because of the timing, some were under the impression that the Game Boy Pocket was made to promote Pocket Monsters, but this was in fact a coincidence that would end up benefiting both.[127]
CoroCoro manga, Mew lottery
Two media channels that would play important roles in the Pokemon franchise were the CoroCoro Comic, released monthly, and its sister magazine Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released bi-monthly. Both manga magazines are published by Shogakukan, a long-time business partner of Nintendo, and have featured manga based on Nintendo properties (e.g. Super Mario-kun, Kirby of the Stars, Donkey Kong). At the time of Pokemon's release, the main CoroCoro magazine was read by one in four elementary school students.[128] CoroCoro's deputy editor-in-chief was Masakazu Kubo [ja]. On Ishihara's suggestion,[129] Kubo commissioned the creation of a Pocket Monsters manga. Written and drawn by Kosaku Anakubo [ja], its first chapter was featured in the March/April issue of Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic, released on February 28, 1996, one day after the release of Red and Green.[130] Shogakukan, which frequently surveys their target groups, determined that the Pocket Monsters manga was well received.[131]
To further promote Red and Green, the May issue of CoroCoro, released on April 15, 1996, announced the "Legendary Pokemon Offer", centered around a mysterious, secret Pokemon called Mew.[132][133] Mew was a last-minute addition to Red & Green. It is unobtainable in the game(s) through usual means, and was intended to be used at a later point in some post-launch activity.[134] To participate in the promotion, CoroCoro readers had to send in a postcard, and from the entrants, 20 were selected at random. The winners then had to send in their cartridge so that Mew could be uploaded onto it. The lottery was a success and increased word-of-mouth.[120][134] By September, sales of Red and Green had surpassed 1 million units.[135]
Pokemon Blue
After the release of Pokemon Red and Green, Game Freak continued to grow, and a number of new employees were hired. For training purposes, they were ordered to study and make bug fixes to the source code of Red & Green, and to create new sprites for it.[136] The upgraded version was dubbed Pokemon Blue.
also stole this from-- max characters
man i indeed do not like the contept of the brain rotting from inside so ima use lobotomy
this post has a suspicious amount of characters (if you didn't know, there are characters that are empty)
BanaCubed says:
Jeno47 says:
this post has a suspicious amount of characters (if you didn't know, there are characters that are empty)
ok, quote posting makes this very easy tbh
BanaCubed says:
Jeno47 says:
this post has a suspicious amount of characters (if you didn't know, there are characters that are empty)
ok, quote posting makes this very easy tbh
BanaCubed says:
Jeno47 says:
this post has a suspicious amount of characters (if you didn't know, there are characters that are empty)
ok, quote posting makes this very easy tbh
BanaCubed says:
Jeno47 says:
this post has a suspicious amount of characters (if you didn't know, there are characters that are empty)
ok, quote posting makes this very easy tbh
THEY'RE MULTIPLYING THEY'RE MULTIPLYING THEY'RE MULTIPLYING THEY'RE MULTIPLYING THEY
– shouted Nago. Cut four corners, five corners, six corners. The front part of the car body consists of 10 sides of the body. Yes, the first 10 chips and 𝐇𝐗𝐈𝐂𝐋𝐄𝐒 ✬✭ ✮꙰࿁⁂⁑❐❑✬✭ ✮ᙝ k50535⁑✁✜5 50535⁑✬3.535 thanks to the radial decimal sum
quote.exe says:
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quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
quote.exe says:bro what have you done guys like i seriously cannot just keep quoting like do you expect me to go
no way bro infinite loop is wild
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[Verse 1]
We're no strangers to love
You know the rules and so do I (Do I)
A full commitment's what I'm thinking of
You wouldn't get this from any other guy
[Pre-Chorus]
I just wanna tell you how I'm feeling
Gotta make you understand
[Chorus]
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
[Verse 3]
We've known each other for so long
Your heart's been aching, but you're too shy to say it (To say it)
Inside, we both know what's been going on (Going on)
We know the game, and we're gonna play it
[Pre-Chorus]
And if you ask me how I'm feeling
Don't tell me you're too blind to see
[Chorus]
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
[Bridge]
Ooh (Give you up)
Ooh-ooh (Give you up)
Ooh-ooh
Never gonna give, never gonna give (Give you up)
Ooh-ooh
Never gonna give, never gonna give (Give you up)
[Verse 2]
We've known each other for so long
Your heart's been aching, but you're too shy to say it (To say it)
Inside, we both know what's been going on (Going on)
We know the game, and we're gonna play it
[Pre-Chorus]
I just wanna tell you how I'm feeling
Gotta make you understand
[Chorus]
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
Never gonna give you up
Never gonna let you down
Never gonna run around and desert you
Never gonna make you cry
Never gonna say goodbye
Never gonna tell a lie and hurt you
You have made a total of 25.31 QaDcMC-ODcTcMI-QdSc antimatter.
You have played for 4 years, 12 days, 12 hours, 5 minutes and 5 seconds. (real time)
Your save was created on May 06 2021 14:53:47 (4 years, 44 days, 2 hours, 49 minutes and 49 seconds ago)
You have seen 11,695 news messages in total.
You have seen 1,474 unique news messages.
You have unlocked 25 Secret Achievements.
You have 8 useless paperclips.
If you wrote 3 numbers a second, it would take you
164 days, 10 hours, 25 minutes and 3 seconds
to write down your antimatter amount.
Infinity
You have no Infinities this Eternity.
You have 806,530,501 Banked Infinities.
You have no fastest Infinity this Eternity.
You have spent 2.25 hours in this Infinity.
Your best Infinity Points per minute this Eternity is 0.00.
Eternity
You have 2,707,607 Eternities.
You will gain no Banked Infinities on Eternity.
Your fastest Eternity was 23 ms.
You have spent 2.25 hours in this Eternity.
Your best Eternity Points per minute is 4.70 ODcDn.
Complete Eternity Challenges again for a bigger reward, maximum of 5 times.
The rewards are applied permanently with no need to have the respective Eternity Challenge Time Study purchased.
When you respec out of an unlocked Eternity Challenge, you don't need to redo the secondary requirement
in order to unlock it again until you complete it; only the Time Theorems are required.
You have seen all 12 Eternity Challenges.
EC1
Time Dimensions are disabled.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 100.00 QtSeOe IP
Reward: Time Dimension multiplier based on time spent this Eternity
Currently: ×1.78 K
EC2
Infinity Dimensions are disabled.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 10.00 SpQiQu IP
Reward: 1st Infinity Dimension multiplier based on Infinity Power
Capped: ×10.00 DTg
EC3
Antimatter Dimensions 5-8 don't produce anything. Dimensional Sacrifice is disabled.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 1.00 NNnDn IP
Reward: Increase the multiplier for buying 10 Antimatter Dimensions
Currently: +3.60
EC4
All Infinity multipliers and generators are disabled. The goal must be reached within a certain number of Infinities or else you will fail the Challenge.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 1.00 MI-NQdSc IP without any Infinities
Reward: Infinity Dimension multiplier based on unspent IP
Capped: ×100.00 QtSe
EC5
Antimatter Galaxy cost increase scaling starts immediately (normally at 100 Galaxies). Dimension Boost costs scaling is massively increased.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 10.00 DOgSi IP
Reward: Distant Galaxy cost scaling starts later
Currently: 25 AG later
EC6
You cannot gain Antimatter Galaxies normally. The cost of upgrading your max Replicanti Galaxies is massively reduced.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 100.00 QtDcSc IP
Reward: Further reduce Antimatter Dimension cost multiplier growth
Currently: -1.0 (×2.0 total)
EC7
1st Time Dimensions produce 8th Infinity Dimensions and 1st Infinity Dimensions produce 7th Antimatter Dimensions. Tickspeed also directly applies to Infinity and Time Dimensions.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 10.00 MI-DStTc IP
Reward: 1st Time Dimension produces 8th Infinity Dimensions
Currently: 2.53 MI-NTgDn per second
EC8
You can only upgrade Infinity Dimensions 50 times and Replicanti upgrades 40 times. Infinity Dimension and Replicanti upgrade autobuyers are disabled.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 10.00 MI-DTgSc IP
Reward: Infinity Power strengthens Replicanti Galaxies
Currently: 28.94%
EC9
You cannot buy Tickspeed upgrades. Infinity Power instead multiplies Time Dimensions with greatly reduced effect.
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 100.00 QtDcNe IP
Reward: Infinity Dimension multiplier based on Time Shards
Capped: ×10.00 DTgCe
EC10
Time Dimensions and Infinity Dimensions are disabled. You gain an immense boost from Infinities to Antimatter Dimensions (Infinities^950).
Completed
Completed 5 times
Goal: 1.00 MI-NNnTc IP
Reward: Time Dimension multiplier based on Infinities
Currently: ×1.04 K (After TS31: ×1.16 T)
EC11
All Dimension multipliers and powers are disabled except for the multipliers from Infinity Power and Dimension Boosts (to Antimatter Dimensions).
Locked
Completed 3 times
Goal: 1.00 NQdTc IP
Reward: Further reduce Tickspeed cost multiplier growth
Currently: -0.21 (×1.79 total) | Next: -0.28 (×1.72 total)
EC12
The game runs ×1,000 slower. The goal must be reached within a certain amount of time or you will fail the Challenge.
Locked
Completed 2 times
Goal: 100.00 QaQdMI-QtSeSc IP in 0.6 in-game seconds or less.
Reward: Infinity Dimension cost multipliers are reduced
Currently: x^0.984 | Next: x^0.976
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"ℵ" redirects here. For the letter, see Aleph. For other uses, see Aleph (disambiguation) and Alef (disambiguation).
Aleph-nought, aleph-zero, or aleph-null, the smallest infinite cardinal number
In mathematics, particularly in set theory, the aleph numbers are a sequence of numbers used to represent the cardinality (or size) of infinite sets.[a] They were introduced by the mathematician Georg Cantor[1] and are named after the symbol he used to denote them, the Hebrew letter aleph (ℵ).[2][b]
The smallest cardinality of an infinite set is that of the natural numbers, denoted by
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} (read aleph-nought, aleph-zero, or aleph-null); the next larger cardinality of a well-ordered set is
ℵ
1
,
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1},} then
ℵ
2
,
{\displaystyle \aleph _{2},} then
ℵ
3
,
{\displaystyle \aleph _{3},} and so on. Continuing in this manner, it is possible to define an infinite cardinal number
ℵ
α
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }} for every ordinal number
α
,
{\displaystyle \alpha ,} as described below.
The concept and notation are due to Georg Cantor,[5] who defined the notion of cardinality and realized that infinite sets can have different cardinalities.
The aleph numbers differ from the infinity (
∞
{\displaystyle \infty }) commonly found in algebra and calculus, in that the alephs measure the sizes of sets, while infinity is commonly defined either as an extreme limit of the real number line (applied to a function or sequence that "diverges to infinity" or "increases without bound"), or as an extreme point of the extended real number line.
Aleph-zero
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} (aleph-nought, aleph-zero, or aleph-null) is the cardinality of the set of all natural numbers, and is an infinite cardinal. The set of all finite ordinals, called
ω
{\displaystyle \omega } or
ω
0
{\displaystyle \omega _{0}} (where
ω
{\displaystyle \omega } is the lowercase Greek letter omega), also has cardinality
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}. A set has cardinality
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} if and only if it is countably infinite, that is, there is a bijection (one-to-one correspondence) between it and the natural numbers. Examples of such sets are:
the set of natural numbers, irrespective of including or excluding zero,
the set of all integers,
any infinite subset of the integers, such as the set of all square numbers or the set of all prime numbers,
the set of all rational numbers,
the set of all constructible numbers (in the geometric sense),
the set of all algebraic numbers,
the set of all computable numbers,
the set of all computable functions,
the set of all binary strings of finite length, and
the set of all finite subsets of any given countably infinite set.
Among the countably infinite sets are certain infinite ordinals,[c] including for example
ω
{\displaystyle \omega },
ω
+
1
{\displaystyle \omega +1},
ω
⋅
2
{\displaystyle \omega \cdot 2},
ω
2
{\displaystyle \omega ^{2}},
ω
ω
{\displaystyle \omega ^{\omega }}, and
ε
0
{\displaystyle \varepsilon _{0}}.[6] For example, the sequence (with order type
ω
⋅
2
{\displaystyle \omega \cdot 2}) of all positive odd integers followed by all positive even integers
{
1
,
3
,
5
,
7
,
9
,
⋯
;
2
,
4
,
6
,
8
,
10
,
⋯
}
{\displaystyle {1,3,5,7,9,\cdots ;2,4,6,8,10,\cdots }} is an ordering of the set (with cardinality
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}) of positive integers.
If the axiom of countable choice (a weaker version of the axiom of choice) holds, then
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} is smaller than any other infinite cardinal, and is therefore the (unique) least infinite ordinal.
Aleph-one
"Aleph One" redirects here. For other uses, see Aleph One (disambiguation).
ℵ
1
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1}} is the cardinality of the set of all countable ordinal numbers.[7] This set is denoted by
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}} (or sometimes Ω). The set
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}} is itself an ordinal number larger than all countable ones, so it is an uncountable set. Therefore,
ℵ
1
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1}} is the smallest cardinality that is larger than
ℵ
0
,
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0},} the smallest infinite cardinality.
The definition of
ℵ
1
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1}} implies (in ZF, Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice) that no cardinal number is between
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} and
ℵ
1
.
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1}.} If the axiom of choice is used, it can be further proved that the class of cardinal numbers is totally ordered, and thus
ℵ
1
{\displaystyle \aleph _{1}} is the second-smallest infinite cardinal number. One can show one of the most useful properties of the set
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}}: Any countable subset of
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}} has an upper bound in
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}} (this follows from the fact that the union of a countable number of countable sets is itself countable). This fact is analogous to the situation in
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}: Every finite set of natural numbers has a maximum which is also a natural number, and finite unions of finite sets are finite.
An example application of the ordinal
ω
1
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}} is "closing" with respect to countable operations; e.g., trying to explicitly describe the σ-algebra generated by an arbitrary collection of subsets (see e.g. Borel hierarchy). This is harder than most explicit descriptions of "generation" in algebra (vector spaces, groups, etc.) because in those cases we only have to close with respect to finite operations – sums, products, etc. The process involves defining, for each countable ordinal, via transfinite induction, a set by "throwing in" all possible countable unions and complements, and taking the union of all that over all of
ω
1
.
{\displaystyle \omega _{1}.}
Continuum hypothesis
Main article: Continuum hypothesis
See also: Beth number
The cardinality of the set of real numbers (cardinality of the continuum) is 2
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}. It cannot be determined from ZFC (Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory augmented with the axiom of choice) where this number fits exactly in the aleph number hierarchy, but it follows from ZFC that the continuum hypothesis (CH) is equivalent to the identity
2
ℵ
0
ℵ
1
{\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{1}}.[8]
The CH states that there is no set whose cardinality is strictly between that of the natural numbers and the real numbers.[9] CH is independent of ZFC: It can be neither proven nor disproven within the context of that axiom system (provided that ZFC is consistent). That CH is consistent with ZFC was demonstrated by Kurt Gödel in 1940, when he showed that its negation is not a theorem of ZFC. That it is independent of ZFC was demonstrated by Paul Cohen in 1963, when he showed conversely that the CH itself is not a theorem of ZFC – by the (then-novel) method of forcing.[8][10]
Aleph-omega
Aleph-omega is
ℵ
ω
ℵ
n
n
∈
ω
ℵ
n
n
∈
{
0
,
1
,
2
,
⋯
}
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega }=\aleph _{n}^{n\in \omega }=\aleph _{n}^{n\in {0,1,2,\cdots }}} where the smallest infinite ordinal is denoted as
ω
{\displaystyle \omega }. That is, the cardinal number
ℵ
ω
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega }} is the least upper bound of
ℵ
n
n
∈
{
0
,
1
,
2
,
⋯
}
{\displaystyle \aleph _{n}^{n\in {0,1,2,\cdots }}}.
Notably,
ℵ
ω
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega }} is the first uncountable cardinal number that can be demonstrated within Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory not to be equal to the cardinality of the set of all real numbers
2
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}}: For any natural number
n
≥
1
{\displaystyle n\geq 1}, we can consistently assume that
2
ℵ
0
ℵ
n
{\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}=\aleph _{n}}, and moreover it is possible to assume that
2
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}} is as least as large as any cardinal number we like. The main restriction ZFC puts on the value of
2
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle 2^{\aleph _{0}}} is that it cannot equal certain special cardinals with cofinality
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}}. An uncountably infinite cardinal
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa } having cofinality
ℵ
0
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} means that there is a (countable-length) sequence
κ
0
≤
κ
1
≤
κ
2
≤
⋯
{\displaystyle \kappa _{0}\leq \kappa _{1}\leq \kappa _{2}\leq \cdots } of cardinals
κ
i
<
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa _{i}<\kappa } whose limit (i.e. its least upper bound) is
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa } (see Easton's theorem). As per the definition above,
ℵ
ω
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\omega }} is the limit of a countable-length sequence of smaller cardinals.
Aleph-α for general α
To define
ℵ
α
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }} for arbitrary ordinal number
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }, we must define the successor cardinal operation, which assigns to any cardinal number
ρ
{\displaystyle \rho } the next larger well-ordered cardinal
ρ
+
{\displaystyle \rho ^{+}} (if the axiom of choice holds, this is the (unique) next larger cardinal).
We can then define the aleph numbers as follows:
ℵ
0
ω
{\displaystyle \aleph _{0}=\omega }
ℵ
α
+
1
(
ℵ
α
)
+
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha +1}=(\aleph _{\alpha })^{+}}
ℵ
λ
⋃
{
ℵ
α
|
α
<
λ
}
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\lambda }=\bigcup {\aleph _{\alpha }|\alpha <\lambda }} for
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda } an infinite limit ordinal,
The
α
{\displaystyle \alpha }-th infinite initial ordinal is written
ω
α
{\displaystyle \omega _{\alpha }}. Its cardinality is written
ℵ
α
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\alpha }}.
Informally, the aleph function
ℵ
:
On
→
Cd
{\displaystyle \aleph :{\text{On}}\rightarrow {\text{Cd}}} is a bijection from the ordinals to the infinite cardinals. Formally, in ZFC,
ℵ
{\displaystyle \aleph } is not a function, but a function-like class, as it is not a set (due to the Burali-Forti paradox).
Fixed points of omega
For any ordinal
α
{\displaystyle \alpha } we have
α
≤
ω
α
{\displaystyle \alpha \leq \omega _{\alpha }}.
In many cases
ω
α
{\displaystyle \omega _{\alpha }} is strictly greater than α. For example, it is true for any successor ordinal:
α
+
1
≤
ω
α
+
1
{\displaystyle \alpha +1\leq \omega _{\alpha +1}} holds. There are, however, some limit ordinals which are fixed points of the omega function, because of the fixed-point lemma for normal functions. The first such is the limit of the sequence
ω
,
ω
ω
,
ω
ω
ω
,
⋯
{\displaystyle \omega ,\omega _{\omega },\omega _{\omega _{\omega }},\cdots }
which is sometimes denoted
ω
ω
⋱
{\textstyle \omega _{\omega _{\ddots }}}.
Any weakly inaccessible cardinal is also a fixed point of the aleph function.[11] This can be shown in ZFC as follows. Suppose
κ
ℵ
λ
{\displaystyle \kappa =\aleph _{\lambda }} is a weakly inaccessible cardinal. If
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda } were a successor ordinal, then
ℵ
λ
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\lambda }} would be a successor cardinal and hence not weakly inaccessible. If
λ
{\displaystyle \lambda } were a limit ordinal less than
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa } then its cofinality (and thus the cofinality of
ℵ
λ
{\displaystyle \aleph _{\lambda }}) would be less than
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa } and so
κ
{\displaystyle \kappa } would not be regular and thus not weakly inaccessible. Thus
λ
≥
κ
{\displaystyle \lambda \geq \kappa } and consequently
λ
κ
{\displaystyle \lambda =\kappa } which makes it a fixed point.
Role of axiom of choice
The cardinality of any infinite ordinal number is an aleph number. Every aleph is the cardinality of some ordinal. The least of these is its initial ordinal. Any set whose cardinality is an aleph is equinumerous with an ordinal and is thus well-orderable.
Each finite set is well-orderable, but does not have an aleph as its cardinality.
Over ZF, the assumption that the cardinality of each infinite set is an aleph number is equivalent to the existence of a well-ordering of every set, which in turn is equivalent to the axiom of choice. ZFC set theory, which includes the axiom of choice, implies that every infinite set has an aleph number as its cardinality (i.e. is equinumerous with its initial ordinal), and thus the initial ordinals of the aleph numbers serve as a class of representatives for all possible infinite cardinal numbers.
When cardinality is studied in ZF without the axiom of choice, it is no longer possible to prove that each infinite set has some aleph number as its cardinality; the sets whose cardinality is an aleph number are exactly the infinite sets that can be well-ordered. The method of Scott's trick is sometimes used as an alternative way to construct representatives for cardinal numbers in the setting of ZF. For example, one can define
card
(
S
)
{\displaystyle {\text{card}}(S)} to be the set of sets with the same cardinality as
S
{\displaystyle S} of minimum possible rank. This has the property that
card
(
S
)
card
(
T
)
{\displaystyle {\text{card}}(S)={\text{card}}(T)} if and only if
S
{\displaystyle S} and
T
{\displaystyle T} have the same cardinality. (The set
card
(
S
)
{\displaystyle {\text{card}}(S)} does not have the same cardinality of
S
{\displaystyle S} in general, but all its elements do.)
See also
Beth number
Gimel function
Regular cardinal
Infinity
Transfinite number
Ordinal number
Notes
Given the axiom of choice, every infinite set has a cardinality that is an aleph number. In contexts where the axiom of choice is not available, the aleph numbers still constitute the cardinalities of those infinite sets that can be well-ordered.
In older mathematics books, the letter aleph is often printed upside down by accident – for example, in Sierpiński (1958)[3]: 402 the letter aleph appears both the right way up and upside down – partly because a monotype matrix for aleph was mistakenly constructed the wrong way up.[4]
This is using the convention that an ordinal is identified with the set of all ordinals less than itself (the so-called von Neumann ordinals).
References
"Aleph". Encyclopedia of Mathematics.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Aleph". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-08-12.
Sierpiński, Wacław (1958). Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers. Polska Akademia Nauk Monografie Matematyczne. Vol. 34. Warsaw, PL: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe. MR 0095787.
Swanson, Ellen; O'Sean, Arlene Ann; Schleyer, Antoinette Tingley (2000) [1979]. Mathematics into type: Copy editing and proofreading of mathematics for editorial assistants and authors (updated ed.). Providence, RI: American Mathematical Society. p. 16. ISBN 0-8218-0053-1. MR 0553111.
Miller, Jeff. "Earliest uses of symbols of set theory and logic". jeff560.tripod.com. Retrieved 2016-05-05; who quotes Dauben, Joseph Warren (1990). Georg Cantor: His mathematics and philosophy of the infinite. Princeton University Press. ISBN 9780691024479. His new numbers deserved something unique. ... Not wishing to invent a new symbol himself, he chose the aleph, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet ... the aleph could be taken to represent new beginnings ...
Jech, Thomas (2003). Set Theory. Springer Monographs in Mathematics. Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag.
"Power of the continuum | mathematics | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2025-02-06.
Szudzik, Mattew (31 July 2018). "Continuum Hypothesis". Wolfram Mathworld. Wolfram Web Resources. Retrieved 15 August 2018.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Continuum Hypothesis". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-08-12.
Chow, Timothy Y. (2007). "A beginner's guide to forcing". arXiv:0712.1320 [math.LO].
Harris, Kenneth A. (April 6, 2009). "Lecture 31" (PDF). Department of Mathematics. kaharris.org. Intro to Set Theory. University of Michigan. Math 582. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved September 1, 2012.
External links
"Aleph-zero", Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
Weisstein, Eric W. "Aleph-0". MathWorld.
vte
Mathematical logic
Categories: Cardinal numbersHebrew alphabetInfinity
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IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE 9TH DIMENSION IS REAL THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS THE UPDATE IS IN 5 HOURS or is it?
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Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvivjhwvpijhfwvlijsdfhlsjidb&ijosr Alijvi
A peanut butter and jelly sandwich is a timeless and comforting food that combines simple ingredients into something surprisingly delicious. It starts with two slices of soft bread, such as white, wheat, or whole grain, which provide a light and slightly chewy base. One slice is coated with peanut butter, either smooth and creamy or crunchy with small peanut pieces, delivering a rich, nutty flavor and a satisfying texture. The other slice is spread with jelly or jam, typically made from fruits like grapes, strawberries, or raspberries, adding a sweet and slightly tangy taste. When the two slices are pressed together, the flavors blend into a perfect harmony of salty and sweet. The sandwich is easy to prepare, affordable, and filling, making it popular for quick meals and snacks. It is often associated with childhood memories, school lunches, and a sense of simple, homemade comfort that continues to appeal to people of all ages today.
chatgpt give me a 1000 character long description of peanut butter and jelly sandwich
galaxyuser63274
oversight
2024/06/20June 20, 2024
have a longer message than the last one (more characters) (inspired by varying numbers)
if the last message is 16,384 characters long, you can ignore this rule
galaxyuser63274
galaxyuser63274
oversight
2024/06/20June 20, 2024
so like this: ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| (this is a longer post so this is valid)
balleater2000
balleater2000
suggester
2024/06/20June 20, 2024
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galaxyuser63274
galaxyuser63274countest
yesterday June 19, 2024
have a longer message than the last one (more characters) (inspired by varying numbers)
if the last message is 16,384 characters long, you can ignore this rule
galaxyuser63274
galaxyuser63274countest
yesterday June 19, 2024
so like this: ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| (this is a longer post so this is valid)
balleater2000
16,384
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adoplayzz
adoplayzz
2024/06/20June 20, 2024
Grass is a type of plant with narrow leaves growing from the base. Their appearance as a common plant was in the mid-Cretaceous period. There are 12,000 species now.
A common kind of grass is used to cover the ground in places such as lawns and parks. Grass is usually the color green. That is because they are wind-pollinated rather than insect-pollinated, so they do not have to attract insects. Green is the best colour for photosynthesis.
Grasslands such as savannah and prairie are where grasses are dominant. They cover 40.5% of the land area of the Earth, but not Greenland and Antarctica.
Grasses are monocotyledon herbaceous plants. They include the "grass" of the family Poaceae, which are called grass by ordinary people. This family is also called the Gramineae, and includes some of the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae). These three families are not very closely related, though all of them belong to clades in the order Poales. They are similar adaptations to a similar life-style.
With about 780 genera and about 12,000 species, the Poaceae is the fifth-largest plant family. Only the Asteraceae, Orchidaceae, Fabaceae and Rubiaceae have more species.
The true grasses include cereals, bamboo and the grasses of lawns (turf) and grassland. Uses for graminoids include food (as grain, shoots or rhizomes), drink (beer, whisky), pasture for livestock, thatch, paper, fuel, clothing, insulation, construction, basket weaving and many others.
Many grasses are short, but some grasses can grow tall, such as bamboo. Plants from the grass family can grow in many places and make grasslands, including areas which are very dry or cold. There are several other plants that look similar to grass and are referred to as such, but are not members of the grass family. These plants include rushes, reeds, papyrus and water chestnut. Seagrass is a monocot in the order Alismatales.
Grasses are an important food for many animals, such as deer, buffalo, cattle, mice, grasshoppers, caterpillars and many other grazers. Unlike other plants, grasses grow from the bottom, so when animals eat grass they usually do not destroy the part that grows.[7] This is part of the reason why the plants are so successful.
Without grass, more soil might wash away into rivers (erosion).
Grasses include some of the most versatile plant life-forms. They became widespread toward the end of the Cretaceous. Fossilized dinosaur dung (coprolites) have been found containing grass phytoliths (silica stones inside grass leaves).[8] Grasses have adapted to conditions in lush rain forests, dry deserts, cold mountains and even intertidal habitats, and are now the most widespread plant type. Grass is a valuable source of food and energy for many animals.[9]
Lawn grass is often planted on sports fields and in the area around a building. Sometimes chemicals and water is used to help lawns to grow.
People have used grasses for a long time. People eat parts of grasses. Corn, wheat, barley, oats, rice and millet are cereals, common grains whose seeds are used for food and to make alcohol such as beer.
Sugar comes from sugar cane, which is also a plant in the grass family. People have grown grasses as food for farm animals for about 4,000 years. People use bamboo to build houses, fences, furniture and other things. Grass plants can also be used as fuel, to cover rooves, and to weave baskets.
description of grass from wikipedia
adoplayzz
adoplayzz
2024/06/20June 20, 2024
[this post was deleted]
balleater2000
balleater2000
suggester
2024/06/21June 21, 2024
Kyrgyzstan,[a] officially the Kyrgyz Republic,[b][12] is a landlocked country in Central Asia, lying in the Tian Shan and Pamir mountain ranges. Bishkek is the capital and largest city of the country. Kyrgyzstan is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and China to the east and southeast.[13][14][15] Ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the country's 7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians.[16]
Kyrgyzstan's history spans a variety of cultures and empires. Although geographically isolated by its highly mountainous terrain, Kyrgyzstan has been at the crossroads of several great civilizations as part of the Silk Road along with other commercial routes. Inhabited by a succession of tribes and clans, Kyrgyzstan has periodically fallen under larger domination, for example the Turkic nomads, who trace their ancestry to many Turkic states. It was first established as the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate. Later, in the 13th century, Kyrgyzstan was conquered by the Mongols; it regained independence, but was later invaded by the Dzungar Khanate. After the fall of Dzhungars, Kyrgyz and Kipchaks were an integral part of Kokand Khanate. In 1876, Kyrgyzstan became part of the Russian Empire, and in 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was formed to become a constituent republic of the Soviet Union. Following Mikhail Gorbachev's democratic reforms in the USSR, in 1990 pro-independence candidate Askar Akayev was elected president. On 31 August 1991, Kyrgyzstan declared independence from the USSR and a democratic government was established. Kyrgyzstan attained sovereignty as a nation state after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.
Tian Shan Mountains in East Kyrgyzstan
After independence, Kyrgyzstan was officially a unitary presidential republic; after the Tulip Revolution it became a unitary parliamentary republic, although it gradually developed an executive president and was governed as a semi-presidential republic before reverting to a presidential system in 2021. Throughout its existence, the country has continued to endure ethnic conflicts,[17][18] revolts,[19] economic troubles,[20][21] transitional governments[22] and political conflict.[23]
Kyrgyzstan is a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, the Eurasian Economic Union, the Collective Security Treaty Organization, the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Organisation of Turkic States, the Türksoy community and the United Nations. It is a developing country ranked 118th in the Human Development Index, and is the second poorest country in Central Asia after neighbouring Tajikistan. The country's transitional economy is heavily dependent on deposits of gold, coal and uranium.
Etymology
Statue of Manas in Bishkek
Kyrgyz is derived from the Turkic word for "We are forty", believed to refer to the forty clans of Manas, a legendary hero who united forty regional clans. The Persian suffix -stan means "place of".
The 40-ray sun on the flag of Kyrgyzstan is a reference to those same forty tribes and the graphical element in the sun's center depicts the wooden crown, called tunduk, of a yurt—a portable dwelling traditionally used by nomads in the steppes of Central Asia.
The country's official name is Kyrgyz Republic, used in international arenas and foreign relations.[24][25] In the English-speaking world, the spelling Kyrgyzstan is commonly used, while its former name Kirghizia[c] is rarely used.[26]
Early history
The Kyrgyz state reached its greatest expansion after defeating the Uyghur Khaganate in 840 AD.[27] From the tenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated as far as the Tian Shan range and maintained their dominance over this territory for about 200 years.
There is a storytelling tradition of the Epic of Manas, which involves a warrior who unified all of the scattered tribes into a single nation in the 9th century. The trilogy, an element of the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List, expresses the memory of the nomadic peoples.[citation needed]
In the 12th century, the Kyrgyz dominion had shrunk to the Altay Range and Sayan Mountains as a result of the Mongol expansion. With the rise of the Mongol Empire in the thirteenth century, the Kyrgyz migrated south. The Kyrgyz peacefully became a part of the Mongol Empire in 1207.
Silk road caravansarai utilized during the Islamic Golden Age
Issyk Kul Lake was a stopover on the Silk Road, a land route for traders, merchants, and other travelers from the Far East to Europe. Kyrgyz tribes were overrun in the 17th century by the Mongols, in the mid-18th century by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China, and in the early 19th century by the Uzbek Khanate of Kokand.[28] In 1842, the Kyrgyz tribes broke away from Kokand and united into the Kara-Kyrgyz Khanate [ky], led by Ormon Khan. Following Ormon's death in 1854, the khanate disintegrated.[29]
Russian conquest
In the late nineteenth century, the eastern part of what is today Kyrgyzstan, mainly the Issyk-Kul Region, was ceded to the Russian Empire by Qing China through the Treaty of Tarbagatai.[30] The territory, then known in Russian as "Kirghizia", was formally incorporated into the Empire in 1876. The Russian takeover was met with numerous revolts, and many of the Kyrgyz opted to relocate to the Pamir Mountains and Afghanistan.
In addition, the suppression of the 1916 rebellion against Russian rule in Central Asia caused many Kyrgyz later to migrate to China.[31] Since many ethnic groups in the region were, and still are, split between neighboring states at a time when borders were more porous and less regulated, it was common to move back and forth over the mountains, depending on where life was perceived as better; this might mean better rains for pasture or better government during oppression.
Soviet Kyrgyzstan (1919–1991)
Soviet power was initially established in the region in 1919, and the Kara-Kyrgyz Autonomous Oblast was created within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (SFSR). The phrase Kara-Kirghiz was used until the mid-1920s by the Russians to distinguish them from the Kazakhs, who were also referred to as Kirghiz. On 5 December 1936, the Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic was established as a constituent Union Republic of the Soviet Union.
After the Russian Civil War, the period of the New Economic Policy (NEP), began, which lasted roughly to 1928.[32] The Bolsheviks made an effort to establish a standardized tax system, with higher taxes for nomads to discourage the wandering livelihood and they divided the Central Asia region into five nation-states.[32][33][34] Kyrgyzstan developed considerably in cultural, educational, and social life, literacy was greatly improved. Economic and social development also was notable.[35] Under Stalin a great focus was put on Kyrgyz national identity. The Soviet state was fighting tribalism: its social organization based on patrilineal kinship contradicted the concept of the modern nation state.[33][35] In a region that did not previously know national institutions or consciousness, the process of nation-building was, from the indigenous perspective, a difficult and ambivalent one.[34]
By the end of the 1920s, the Soviet Union developed a series of five-year plans, centered around industrialization and the collectivization of agriculture, including the creation of huge "kolkhoz" collective farming systems, needed to feed the new workers in the industries.[36] Because of the plan's reliance on rapidity, major economic and cultural changes had to occur, which led to conflicts. In Kyrgyzstan, Russian settlers acquired the best pasture land, creating much hardship for most of its original inhabitants, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Turkmen nomads, who were also forced to settle down on soil that hadn't enough agricultural potential.[34][37] The changes caused unrest, and between 1928 and 1932, nomads and peasants made it clear through methods like passive resistance that they did not agree with these policies, in the Kirgiziya area also guerrilla opposition occurred.[32][34][37] The region suffered relatively more deaths from collectivization than any other.[32]
The early years of glasnost, in the late 1980s, had little effect on the political climate in Kyrgyzstan. However, the Republic's press was permitted to adopt a more liberal stance and to establish a new publication, Literaturny Kirghizstan, by the Union of Writers. Unofficial political groups were forbidden, but several groups that emerged in 1989 to deal with the acute housing crisis were permitted to function.
According to the last Soviet census in 1989, ethnic Kyrgyz made up only 22% of the residents of the northern city of Frunze (now Bishkek), while more than 60% were Russians, Ukrainians, and people from other Slavic nations. Nearly 10% of the capital's population were Jewish (a rather unique fact, for almost any place in the Soviet Union, except the Jewish Autonomous Oblast).
In June 1990, ethnic tensions between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz surfaced in the Osh Region (southern Kyrgyzstan), where Uzbeks form a minority of the population.[38] The tensions between Kyrgyzs and Uzbeks in Osis led to 186 deaths.[39] Attempts to appropriate Uzbek collective farms for housing development triggered the Osh Riots. A state of emergency and curfew were introduced[40] and Askar Akayev, the youngest of five sons born into a family of collective farm workers (in northern Kyrgyzstan), was elected president in October of that same year. By then, the Kyrgyzstan Democratic Movement (KDM) had developed into a significant political force with support in Parliament. On 15 December 1990, the Supreme Soviet voted to change the republic's name to the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. The following January, Akayev introduced new government structures and appointed a new cabinet composed mainly of younger, reform-oriented politicians. In February 1991, the name of the capital, Frunze, was changed back to its pre-revolutionary name of Bishkek.[41]
Despite these political moves toward independence, economic realities seemed to work against seces
entire way to win: copy the entire forum!
Iguana (/ɪˈɡwɑːnə/,[4][5] Spanish: [iˈɣwana]) is a genus of herbivorous lizards that are native to tropical areas of Mexico, Central America, South America, and the Caribbean. The genus was first described by Austrian naturalist J.N. Laurenti in 1768.[6] Two species are placed in the genus: The green iguana, which is widespread throughout its range and a popular pet; and the Lesser Antillean iguana, which is native to the Lesser Antilles. Genetic analysis indicates that the green iguana may comprise a complex of multiple species, some of which have been recently described, but the Reptile Database considers all of these as subspecies of the green iguana.[7][8]
The word "iguana" is derived from the original Taino name for the species, iwana.[9] In addition to the two species in the genus Iguana, several other related genera in the same family have common names of the species including the word "iguana".[10]
The species is a popular quarry for pets, and non-native animals have been widely introduced beyond its native area, into Ishigaki Island, the Florida Peninsula, Hawaii, Singapore, Thailand, Taiwan, and including numerous islands with native Iguana populations in the Lesser Antilles.[8][11]
Anatomy and physiology
Iguanas are large lizards that can range from 1.2 to 2.0 m (4 to 6.5 ft) in length, including their tails. They possess a dewlap and a row of elongated scales running from the midline of their necks down to their tails. Iguanas have varying types of scales covering different areas of their body; for example, some large, round tuberculate scales are scattered around the lateral region of the neck among smaller, overlapping scales.[12] The scales on the dorsal trunk of their bodies are also thicker and more tightly packed than those on the ventral sides.[12] These scales may be a variety of colors and are not always visible from close distances. They have a large, round scale on their cheeks known as a subtympanic shield.[13]
Iguana eating flower.
Iguanas have keen vision and can see shapes, shadows, colors, and movement at long distances. Their visual acuity enables them to navigate through crowded forests and to locate food. They employ visual signals to communicate with other members of the same species.[13]
The tympanum, the iguana's eardrum, is located above the subtympanic shield (or "ear shield") behind each eye (though the Lesser Antillean iguana lacks this shield).
Iguanas are often hard to spot, as they tend to blend into their surroundings, and their coloration enables them to hide from larger predators.[13]
Like most reptiles, an iguana has a three-chambered heart with two atria, one ventricle, and two aortae with a systemic circulation.[14] The muscles of an iguana are very light in color due to the high proportion of fast-twitch, glycolytic muscle fibers (type A). These A fibers are not very vascularized and are low in myoglobin, giving them their pale look. This high density of A fibers allows iguanas to move very quickly for a short period of time, which facilitates short bursts of movement, but is inefficient for long duration movement, since cellular respiration in A fibers is anaerobic.
Parietal eye
Several species of lizards, including the iguanas, have a pale scale towards the back of their heads marking the parietal eye. This organ is sensitive to changes in illumination and sends signals to the pineal gland noting the change between day and night. A photopigment commonly found in the lamprey, known as parapinopsin, is also found in the iguana, and is sensitive to ultraviolet light and aids in the signaling between day and night.[15]
Skull morphology and diet
Iguanas have an exclusively herbivorous diet,[16] as illustrated above by a green iguana eating a mango in Venezuela.
Iguanas have developed an herbivorous lifestyle, foraging exclusively on vegetation and foliage.[16] To acquire, process, and digest plant matter, herbivorous lizards must have a higher bite force relative to their size in comparison to carnivorous or omnivorous reptiles. The skull of the iguana has undergone modifications resulting in a strong bite force and efficient processing of vegetation, according to one study.[17] To accomplish this biomechanically, herbivorous lizards have taller and wider skulls, shorter snouts, and larger bodies relative to carnivorous and omnivorous reptiles.[17] Increasing the strength of the skull allows for increased muscle presence and increases the ability of the skull to withstand stronger forces.[18]
Albino Iguana - Bred to be kept as a pet
Green iguana skull (Iguana iguana).jpg: Brian Gratwicke derivative work: B kimmel (talk)
Green iguana skull and teeth: The teeth of the green iguana sit on the surface of the jawbone, known as acrodontal placement.[19]
Simple phylogeny with Reptilia highlighted in green: Iguanians are within Lepidosauria.
Furthermore, the teeth of the iguana are acrodontal, meaning that their teeth sit on top of the surface of the jaw bone[19] and project upwards. The teeth themselves are small and serrated - designed to grasp and shear food.[20]
Reproduction
Male iguanas, like other male examples of Squamata, have two hemipenes. During copulation, one hemipenis is inserted into the female's cloacal vent.[21] A female can store sperm from previous mates for several years to continue to fertilize her eggs in case she finds no male within her territory when she is ready to lay again.[22][23][24] The number of eggs (a clutch) that a female can lay is strongly dependent of her body size and impacted by climatic and environmental conditions. Clutch size within Iguana iguana has been recorded up to 71 eggs, whilst maximum clutch size for Iguana delicatissima is 30, with the only reported hybrid female between both species having 35 eggs.[25] In some circumstances, an iguana is able to reproduce hatchlings without mating.[26][better source needed]
Mating/courtship
Iguanas tend to follow a promiscuous or polygynandrous mating style during the dry season. Mating during the dry season ensures that their offspring will hatch during the wet or rainy season when food will be more plentiful. Females control large territories, where they make several nests. Males compete for the females in an area and mark their won territory with a pheromone secreted from the femoral pores on the dorsal side of their hind limbs. Male behavior during sexual competition involves head bobbing, extending and retracting their dewlap, nuzzling and biting the necks of females, and on occasion, changing color. Once a female chooses a male, he straddles the female and holds her in place by biting onto her shoulder, which sometimes leaves scars on females. After copulation, eggs are laid within a nest underground (at depths up to 1.65 m (5.5 ft) for the Lesser Antillean iguana) from which the hatchlings emerge after >85 days of incubation. This low level of parental intervention with their offspring makes iguanas an example of r-strategy reproduction.[citation needed]
Phylogeny
A phylogeny based on nuclear protein-coding genes, reviewed by Vidal and Hedges (2009), suggested that the subclade Iguania is in a group with snakes and anguimorphs (lizards). These groups share an oral gland capable of secreting toxins (a derived trait).[27] The phylogeny based on whole mitochondrial genomes, though, as proposed by Rest et al. (2003), places the green iguana as the closest relative of the mole skink (Plestiodon egregius).[28] Lepidosaurs are reptiles with overlapping scales, and within this group both iguanians and tuataras (Sphenodon) project their tongues to seize prey items instead of using their jaws, which is called tongue prehension. Iguanians are the only lineage within the Squamata that display this trait, meaning that it was gained independently in both iguanians and tuataras.[27] Iguanians are also the only squamates that primarily use their sight to identify and track prey rather than chemoreception or scent, and employ an ambush technique of catching prey instead of active searching.[27]
A study by Breuil et al. (2020) found the taxonomy of the genus Iguana as follows, with I. delicatissima being the most basal member of the group.[7] The species are classified as subspecies based on the ReptileDatabase definitions.
Sauromalus
Iguana
I. delicatissima
I. iguana
"I. i. rhinolopha"
I. i. insularis
I. i. sanctaluciae
I. i. melanoderma
I. i. iguana
The Reptile Database synonymizes I. rhinolopha with I. iguana, only considering it a distinctive population, and recognizes I. insularis and I. melanoderma as subspecies of I. iguana. Four subspecies of green iguana are recognized under this treatment: I. i. insularis (Saint Vincent & the Grenadines and Grenada), I. i. sanctaluciae (Saint Lucia), I. i. melanoderma (parts of the northern Lesser Antilles, and potentially coastal Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico), and I. i. iguana (mainland South America).
Extant species
Two extant species in the genus Iguana are widely recognized.
Image Scientific name Common name Distribution
Iguana delicatissima Lesser Antillean iguana The Lesser Antilles on Saint Barth, Anguilla, Sint Eustatius, Guadeloupe, Dominica, and Martinique. Historically inhabited all islands between Anguilla and Martinique, except Saba and Montserrat (and perhaps Redonda).
Iguana iguana Green iguana Most of South America, from Colombia east to French Guiana and south to northern Argentina. Also introduced to parts of the Caribbean. If other species formerly considered conspecific are included, ranges north to southern Mexico and the southern Caribbean; specifically Grenada, Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Trinidad and Tobago, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Saba (island), Montserrat and Útila.
Subspecies
Three Caribbean subspecies of the green iguana are also recognized:
Image Subspecies Common name Distribution
I. i. insularis[29] Grenadines horned iguana St. Vincent and the Grenadines and Grenada
Iguana iguana melanoderma[7] Saban black iguana Saba, Montserrat, and formerly Redonda, but also possibly coastal Venezuela, the Virgin Islands, and Puerto Rico. At least parts of this range may derive from historic introduction.
I. i. sanctaluciae[29] Saint Lucia horned iguana St. Lucia
The Central American iguana (I. rhinolopha or I. i. rhinolopha), sometimes considered a distinct species, is largely considered synonymous with I. iguana, as the presence of horns does not necessarily indicate a new species or subspecies. The two described subspecies of I. insularis (the Saint Lucia horned iguana, I. i. sanctaluciae, and the Grenadines horned iguana, I. i. insularis) were originally described as subspecies of I. iguana, although they are genetically very similar and may not be separate subspecies from one another.[30] Recent studies have recovered I. rhinolopha and I. insularis as distinct species based on genetics, but the Reptile Database disagrees with these conclusions, and classifies I. rhinolopha as synonymous with I. iguana, and I. insularis as a subspecies of I. iguana.[31] The Curaçao population of green iguanas shows major genetic divergence and may also represent an as-of-yet undescribed species or subspecies.[7][32]
As food
Main article: Iguana meat
Iguanas have historically featured in the culinary traditions of Mexico and Central America. Iguana meat is also consumed in parts of the Dominican Republic and United States (such as Puerto Rico).[33] Iguana eggs are consumed in some parts of Latin America, such as Nicaragua and Colombia.[34]
Ecology
As large herbivores, iguanas are important members of the ecosystems they live in, especially on islands where they often are the largest native terrestrial species. Given their life history characteristics their impact on other species is high. By eating leaves and flowers they promote plant growth and flowering, and by eating fruits and seeds they aid in seed dispersal and germination. The large number of eggs that female iguanas lay provides high amounts of protein for predators that either target the eggs while these are incubating, or that feed on baby iguanas once they emerge. Also, the nests that female iguanas dig (including the tunnels) create complex underground systems with looser soil that other species can utilize; a recent study found that females of the Lesser Antillean iguana can lay their clutches at a depth of 1.65 m (5.5 ft) underground.[35]
References
"Iguana iguana". Fossil works. paleobiodb.org. taxon 373787. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
"Iguanidae". Fossil works. paleobiodb.org. taxon 37855. Archived from the original on 12 December 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
"Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
"iguana". Cambridge Dictionary (American English ed.) – via dictionary.cambridge.org.
"iguana". Oxford Dictionaries (oxforddictionaries.com) (online ed.). Archived from the original on 7 April 2014 – via Internet Archive (archive.org).
Laurenti, J.N. (1768). Specimen Medicum, Exhibens Synopsin Reptilium Emendatam cum Experimentis circa Venena [Medical specimen, presenting a revised synopsis of reptiles with experiments on venom] (in Latin).
Breuil, M.; Schikorski, D.; Vuillaume, B.; Krauss, U.; Morton, M.N.; Corry, E.; et al. (2020). "Painted black: Iguana melanoderma (Reptilia, Squamata, Iguanidae) a new melanistic endemic species from Saba and Montserrat islands (Lesser Antilles)". ZooKeys (926): 95–131. Bibcode:2020ZooK..926...95B. doi:10.3897/zookeys.926.48679. PMC 7170970. PMID 32336922.
"Iguana iguana". The Reptile Database. Retrieved 26 April 2021.
Coles, William (2002). Green iguana (PDF) (Report). U.S.V.I. Animal Fact Sheet. Vol. 08. Department of Planning and Natural Resources, US Virgin Islands Division of Fish and Wildlife. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 December 2007.
Wildlife Review. Fish and Wildlife Service. U.S. Department of the Interior. 1968 – via Google.
van den Burg, M.P.; Goetz, M.; Brannon, L.; Weekes, T.S.; Ryan, K. V.; Debrot, A.O. (23 March 2023). "An integrative approach to assess non-native iguana presence on Saba and Montserrat: Are we losing all native Iguana populations in the Lesser Antilles?". Animal Conservation. 26 (6): 813–825. Bibcode:2023AnCon..26..813V. doi:10.1111/acv.12869. eISSN 1469-1795. hdl:10261/306882. ISSN 1367-9430. S2CID 257731680.
Chang, Cheng; Wu, Ping; Baker, Ruth E.; Maini, Philip K.; Alibardi, Lorenzo; Chuong, Cheng-Ming (2009). "Reptile scale paradigm: Evo-devo, pattern formation and regeneration". The International Journal of Developmental Biology. 53 (5–6): 813–826. doi:10.1387/ijdb.072556cc. ISSN 0214-6282. PMC 2874329. PMID 19557687.
Lazell, J.D. (1973). "The lizard genus Iguana in the Lesser Antilles". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 145: 1–28.
de Voe, Ryan S. "Reptilian cardiovascular anatomy and physiology: Evaluation and monitoring (Proceedings)". dvm360.com. Archived from the original on 6 November 2018. Retrieved 13 May 2017.
Wada, Seiji (June 2012). "Expression of UV-Sensitive parapinopsin in the iguana parietal eyes and its implication in UV-sensitivity in vertebrate pineal-related organs". PLOS ONE. 7 (6): 6. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...739003W. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0039003. PMC 3375259. PMID 22720013.
Lichtenbelt, Wouter D. van Marken (1 August 1993). "Optimal foraging of a herbivorous lizard, the green iguana in a seasonal environment". Oecologia. 95 (2): 246–256. Bibcode:1993Oecol..95..246V. doi:10.1007/BF00323497. ISSN 0029-8549. PMID 28312949. S2CID 2101397.
Metzger, Keith A.; Herrel, Anthony (1 December 2005). "Correlations between lizard cranial shape and diet: a quantitative, phylogenetically informed analysis". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 86 (4): 433–466. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2005.00546.x. ISSN 0024-4066.
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